Sarah O. Meadows

@SarahOMeadows on Twitter

Senior Sociologist; Professor, Pardee RAND Graduate School

Santa Monica Office

Education

Ph.D. and M.A. in sociology, Duke University; B.A. in sociology and psychology, University of Virginia

Media Resources

This researcher is available for interviews.

To arrange an interview, contact the RAND Office of Media Relations at (310) 451-6913, or email media@rand.org.

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Overview

Sarah O. Meadows is a senior sociologist at the RAND Corporation and a professor at the Pardee RAND Graduate School. Her research areas include families and children (both civilian and military) and defense manpower issues, with a particular focus on readiness and resilience. Her recent work has focused on health and health behaviors among service members, readiness and resilience among military families, and program evaluation of support services for military families. Her work has been published in RAND reports as well as in numerous academic journals. Meadows received her Ph.D. and M.A. in sociology from Duke University and her B.A. in sociology and psychology from the University of Virginia. She also completed a postdoc at the Bendheim-Thoman Center for Research on Child Wellbeing at Princeton University.

Research Focus

Recent Projects

2018 DoD Health Related Behaviors Survey
2015 DoD Health Related Behaviors Survey
The Deployment Life Study
Readiness and resilience among servicemembers and families
Program evaluation of support services for service members and their families

Selected Publications

Dunbar, Michael S., Megan S. Schuler, Sarah O. Meadows, and Charles Engel, "Associations Between Mental and Physical Health Conditions and Occupational Impairments in the U.S. Military.," Military Medicine (forthcoming)

Sarah O. Meadows, Beth Ann Griffin, Benjamin R. Karney, and Julia Pollak, "Employment Gaps between Military Spouses and Matched Civilians," Armed Forces and Society (forthcoming)

Thomas E. Trail, Sarah O. Meadows, Jeremy N.V. Miles, and Benjamin R. Karney, "Patterns of Vulnerabilities and Resources in U.S. Military Families," Journal of Family Issues (forthcoming)

Sarah O. Meadows, "The Association Between Perceptions of Social Support and Maternal Mental Health Problems: A Cumulative Perspective," Journal of Family Issues, 2010

Sarah O. Meadows, "Family Structure and Fathers' Well-Being: Trajectories of Mental and Physical Health," Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 50(2), 2009

Carey C. Cooper, Sara S. McLanahan, Sarah O. Meadows, and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, "Family Structure Transitions and Maternal Parenting Stress," Journal of Marriage and Family, 71, 2009

Sarah O. Meadows, "Is It There When You Need It? Mismatch in Perception of Future Availability and Subsequent Receipt of Instrumental Social Support," Journal of Family Issues, 30(8), 2009

Sarah O. Meadows, Sara S. McLanahan, and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, "Stability and Change in Family Structure and Maternal Health Trajectories," American Sociological Review, 73(April), 2008

Honors & Awards

Reuben Hill Award, National Counsel on Family Relations
Best Social Indicators Research Paper Award, International Society for Quality of Life Studies

Commentary

Study Finds Most Military Families Are Resilient in Face of Deployment
Despite the fact that service members, spouses, and their children experience frequent deployments to combat zones throughout the world, a recent study of more than 2,700 military families found that they generally fare well and adapt effectively to the stresses of deployment.
Apr 22, 2016 The RAND Blog
Military Families: What We Know and What We Don't Know
Never before in our nation's history have our service members and their families been so challenged and never before have their struggles (and successes) been the topic of so much scholarly attention, writes Sarah O. Meadows.
Mar 2, 2012 National Council on Family Relations Report Magazine

Publications

Report
The Exceptional Family Member Program (EFMP): Policy Alignment Between the Department of Defense and the Services
Each military service branch runs its own Exceptional Family Member Program (EFMP). The authors compare service branch EFMP policy with the overarching Department of Defense (DoD) policy, pointing to areas where each policy may be edited for more consistency.
May 3, 2021
Report
2018 Department of Defense Health Related Behaviors Survey (HRBS): Results for the Active Component
In this report, RAND researchers review survey methods, sample demographics, key findings, and policy implications from the 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey of active component service members.
Apr 28, 2021
Report
2018 Department of Defense Health Related Behaviors Survey (HRBS): Results for the Reserve Component
In this report, RAND researchers review survey methods, sample demographics, key findings, and policy implications from the 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey of reserve component service members.
Apr 28, 2021
Research Brief
2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Substance Use Among the Reserve Component
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This brief reviews results for substance use among reserve component members, particularly use of alcohol, tobacco, and medication.
Apr 28, 2021
Research Brief
2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Summary Findings and Policy Implications for the Active Component
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This brief summarizes results for broad topics of the survey, such as substance use and mental health, among active component members.
Apr 28, 2021
Research Brief
2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Mental and Emotional Health Among the Active Component
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This brief reviews results for mental and emotional health among active component members.
Apr 28, 2021
Research Brief
2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Summary Findings and Policy Implications for the Reserve Component
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This brief summarizes results for broad topics of the survey, such as substance use and mental health, among reserve component members.
Apr 28, 2021
Research Brief
2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Deployment Experiences and Health Among the Reserve Component
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This brief reviews results for recent deployment experiences and health among reserve component members.
Apr 28, 2021
Research Brief
2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Among the Active Component
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This brief reviews results for health promotion and disease prevention among active component members.
Apr 28, 2021
Research Brief
2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Sexual Behavior and Health Among the Reserve Component
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This brief reviews results for sexual behavior and health among reserve component members.
Apr 28, 2021
Research Brief
2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Sexual Orientation and Health Among the Active Component
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This brief reviews results for sexual orientation and health among active component members.
Apr 28, 2021
Research Brief
2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Sexual Orientation and Health Among the Reserve Component
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This brief reviews results for sexual orientation and health among reserve component members.
Apr 28, 2021
Research Brief
2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Comparing the Active and Reserve Components
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This brief compares results for the active component and the reserve component.
Apr 28, 2021
Research Brief
2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Deployment Experiences and Health Among the Active Component
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This brief reviews results for recent deployment experiences and health among active component members.
Apr 28, 2021
Research Brief
2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Mental and Emotional Health Among the Reserve Component
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This brief reviews results for mental and emotional health among reserve component members.
Apr 28, 2021
Research Brief
2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Physical Health and Functional Limitations Among the Active Component
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This brief reviews results for physical health and functional limitations among active component members.
Apr 28, 2021
Research Brief
2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Physical Health and Functional Limitations Among the Reserve Component
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This brief reviews results for physical health and functional limitations among reserve component members.
Apr 28, 2021
Research Brief
2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Sexual Behavior and Health Among the Active Component
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This brief reviews results for sexual behavior and health among active component members.
Apr 28, 2021
Research Brief
2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Among the Reserve Component
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This brief reviews results for health promotion and disease prevention among reserve component members.
Apr 28, 2021
Research Brief
2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Substance Use Among the Active Component
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This brief reviews results for substance use among active component members, particularly use of alcohol, tobacco, and medication.
Apr 28, 2021
Infographic
Assessing the Health Readiness of Active Component Airmen: Results from Air Force Respondents to the HRBS
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This infographic reports key findings for active component members in the Air Force.
Apr 28, 2021
Infographic
Assessing the Health Readiness of Active Component Coast Guardsmen: Results from Coast Guard Respondents to the HRBS
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This infographic reports key findings for active component members in the Coast Guard.
Apr 28, 2021
Infographic
Assessing the Health Readiness of Active Component Marines: Results from Marine Corps Respondents to the HRBS
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This infographic reports key findings for active component members in the Marine Corps.
Apr 28, 2021
Infographic
Assessing the Health Readiness of Active Component Sailors: Results from Navy Respondents to the HRBS
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This infographic reports key findings for active component members in the Navy.
Apr 28, 2021
Infographic
Assessing the Health Readiness of Active Component Soldiers: Results from Army Respondents to the HRBS
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This infographic reports key findings for active component members in the Army.
Apr 28, 2021
Infographic
Assessing the Health Readiness of Air Force Reservists: Results from Air Force Reserve Respondents to the HRBS
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This infographic reports key findings for reserve component members in the Air Force Reserve.
Apr 28, 2021
Infographic
Assessing the Health Readiness of Air National Guard Members: Results from Air National Guard Respondents to the HRBS
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This infographic reports key findings for reserve component members in the Air National Guard.
Apr 28, 2021
Infographic
Assessing the Health Readiness of Army National Guard Members: Results from Army National Guard Respondents to the HRBS
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This infographic reports key findings for reserve component members in the Army National Guard.
Apr 28, 2021
Infographic
Assessing the Health Readiness of Army Reservists: Results from Army Reserve Respondents to the HRBS
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This infographic reports key findings for reserve component members in the Army Reserve.
Apr 28, 2021
Infographic
Assessing the Health Readiness of Coast Guard Reservists: Results from Coast Guard Reserve Respondents to the HRBS
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This infographic reports key findings for reserve component members in the Coast Guard Reserve.
Apr 28, 2021
Infographic
Assessing the Health Readiness of Marine Corps Reservists: Results from Marine Corps Reserve Respondents to the HRBS
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This infographic reports key findings for reserve component members in the Marine Corps Reserve.
Apr 28, 2021
Infographic
Assessing the Health Readiness of Navy Reservists: Results from Navy Reserve Respondents to the HRBS
The 2018 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health and health behaviors of service members. This infographic reports key findings for reserve component members in the Navy Reserve.
Apr 28, 2021
Journal Article
Associations Between Mental and Physical Health Conditions and Occupational Impairments in the U.S. Military
Common mental health conditions such as anxiety, depression, and PTSD showed robust associations with absenteeism and presenteeism among active duty U.S. military service members.
Feb 19, 2021
Report
The Behavioral Health of Minority Active Duty Service Members
The authors describe the behavioral health of racial/ethnic minority, women, and sexual-minority service members relative to their majority-group peers and examine minority–majority group differences in the military versus civilian populations.
Dec 17, 2020
Report
Air Force Morale, Welfare, and Recreation Programs and Services: Contribution to Airman and Family Resilience and Readiness
Morale, Welfare, and Recreation (MWR) programs are key to resilient and ready Airmen and families. The authors developed a resilience and readiness model and compared it with target outcomes of MWR services. Next steps are also provided.
Jul 31, 2019
Report
Enhancing Family Stability During a Permanent Change of Station: A Review of Disruptions and Policies
According to the U.S. Department of Defense, approximately one-third of military service members experience a permanent change of station (PCS) move every year. The authors researched programs that address PCS-related family disruptions.
Oct 18, 2018
Report
2015 Department of Defense Health Related Behaviors Survey (HRBS)
In this report, RAND researchers review survey methods, sample demographics, key findings, and policy implications from the 2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey of active-duty service members.
Jun 21, 2018
Research Brief
2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Sexual Behavior and Health Among U.S. Active-Duty Service Members
The 2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health, health-related behaviors, and well-being of active-duty service members. This brief reviews results for sexual behavior and health.
Jun 21, 2018
Research Brief
2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Among U.S. Active-Duty Service Members
The 2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health, health-related behaviors, and well-being of active-duty service members. This brief reviews results for health promotion and disease prevention.
Jun 21, 2018
Research Brief
2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Mental and Emotional Health Among U.S. Active-Duty Service Members
The 2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health, health-related behaviors, and well-being of active-duty service members. This brief reviews results for mental and emotional health.
Jun 21, 2018
Research Brief
2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Summary Findings and Policy Implications
The 2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health, health-related behaviors, and well-being of active-duty service members. This brief summarizes results for broad topics of the survey, such as substance use and mental health.
Jun 21, 2018
Research Brief
2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Sexual Orientation, Transgender Identity, and Health Among U.S. Active-Duty Service Members
The 2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health, health-related behaviors, and well-being of active-duty service members. This brief reviews results for sexual orientation, transgender identity, and related health.
Jun 21, 2018
Research Brief
2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Substance Use Among U.S. Active-Duty Service Members
The 2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health, health-related behaviors, and well-being of active-duty service members. This brief reviews results for substance use, particularly use of alcohol, tobacco, and medication.
Jun 21, 2018
Research Brief
2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey: Physical Health and Functional Limitations Among U.S. Active-Duty Service Members
The 2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health, health-related behaviors, and well-being of active-duty service members. This brief reviews results for physical health and functional limitations.
Jun 21, 2018
Research Brief
2015 Health Releated Behaviors Survey: Deployment Experiences and Health Among U.S. Active-Duty Service Members
The 2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health, health-related behaviors, and well-being of active-duty service members. This brief reviews results for recent deployment experiences and health.
Jun 21, 2018
Infographic
Are They Living Healthy? How Well Are Soldiers Taking Care of Themselves
The 2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health, health-related behaviors, and well-being of active-duty service members. This infographic reports key findings across the Army.
Jun 21, 2018
Infographic
Are They Living Healthy? How Well Are Coast Guardsmen Taking Care of Themselves
The 2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health, health-related behaviors, and well-being of active-duty service members. This infographic reports key findings across the Coast Guard.
Jun 21, 2018
Infographic
Are They Living Healthy? How Well Are Sailors Taking Care of Themselves
The 2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health, health-related behaviors, and well-being of active-duty service members. This infographic reports key findings across the Navy.
Jun 21, 2018
Infographic
Are They Living Healthy? How Well Are Marines Taking Care of Themselves
The 2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health, health-related behaviors, and well-being of active-duty service members. This infographic reports key findings across the Marine Corps.
Jun 21, 2018
Infographic
Are They Living Healthy? How Well Are Service Members Taking Care of Themselves
The 2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health, health-related behaviors, and well-being of active-duty service members. This infographic reports key findings across the Air Force, Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Coast Guard.
Jun 21, 2018
Infographic
Are They Living Healthy? How Well Are Airmen Taking Care of Themselves
The 2015 Health Related Behaviors Survey sought information on the health, health-related behaviors, and well-being of active-duty service members. This infographic reports key findings across the Air Force.
Jun 21, 2018
Journal Article
Employment Gaps Between Military Spouses and Matched Civilians
Drawing upon data from the Deployment Life Study, this article examines whether female military spouses (SPs) are disadvantaged relative to matched civilian peers in terms of hours worked and earnings, paying particular attention to gaps among the highest educated women.
Jul 26, 2016
Research Brief
How Military Families Respond Before, During and After Deployment: Findings from the RAND Deployment Life Study
This overview of the findings from the RAND Deployment Life Study describes the effects of deployment on marital relationships, family environment, psychological and behavioral health, child well-being, and military integration.
Apr 15, 2016
Report
The Deployment Life Study: Longitudinal Analysis of Military Families Across the Deployment Cycle
In 2009, RAND launched the Deployment Life Study to study military family readiness. This report presents analyses on marital relationships, family environment, psychological and behavioral health, child well-being, and military integration.
Apr 7, 2016
Journal Article
Maternal Health Status and Early Childbearing: A Test of the Weathering Hypothesis
This study examines the hypothesis of early childbearing as detrimental to maternal well-being.
Nov 24, 2015
Report
Airman and Family Resilience: Lessons from the Scientific Literature
This final report in a series reviews the concepts and measures of resilience, resilience factors, hardiness and flourishing. It highlights the eight fitness domain companion reports and types of Air Force data that could be used to track resilience.
Sep 29, 2015
Report
Environmental Fitness and Resilience: A Review of Relevant Constructs, Measures, and Links to Well-Being
This report identifies key environmental stressors experienced by Airmen and examines key resilience factors in the domain of environmental fitness, focusing specifically on prevention and protective measures.
Sep 29, 2015
Journal Article
Patterns of Vulnerabilities and Resources in U.S. Military Families
The appropriate format for services supporting military families depends on how vulnerabilities and resources are distributed across and within those families.
Jul 14, 2015
Report
Family Resilience in the Military: Definitions, Models, and Policies
Summarizes definitions of family resilience in the literature, identifies key family resilience factors, and recommends steps that the Department of Defense can take to manage its portfolio of family resilience programs and policies.
Jul 10, 2015
Report
An Integrated Survey System for Addressing Abuse and Misconduct Toward Air Force Trainees During Basic Military Training
RAND developed an integrated survey system to help the U.S. Air Force's Air Education and Training Command monitor and address abuse and misconduct by military training instructors toward trainees during Basic Military Training.
Jun 18, 2015
Report
The Deployment Life Study: Methodological Overview and Baseline Sample Description
The report provides a deeper understanding of military family readiness, describing the measures used in the baseline assessment, data-collection design and procedures, sampling and recruiting procedures, and the baseline sample of military families.
Apr 28, 2014
Report
The Association Between Base-Area Social and Economic Characteristics and Airmen's Outcomes
This report shows whether and how base-area characteristics are associated with individual-level Airman outcomes across several different domains, including health and well-being, social cohesion, and ratings of neighborhood resources.
Feb 3, 2014
Report
Medical Fitness and Resilience: A Review of Relevant Constructs, Measures, and Links to Well-Being
This report examines the relationship between medical fitness and resilience, using key constructs found in the scientific literature that address preventive care, presence and management of injuries and chronic conditions, and health care access.
Oct 3, 2013
Report
Exploring the Association Between Military Base Neighborhood Characteristics and Soldiers' and Airmen's Outcomes
This report explores how neighborhood theory and social indicators research shed light on quality of life in and around military bases, gaps in the methodology, and how a more in-depth analysis of military installations could be conducted.
Jan 24, 2013
Research Brief
Linking Language, Regional Expertise, and Culture Capabilities to Military Readiness
Current tracking of language, regional expertise, and culture training and capabilities provides limited support for military decisionmaking.
Oct 18, 2012
Report
An Assessment of the Ability of the U.S. Department of Defense and the Services to Measure and Track Language and Culture Training and Capabilities Among General Purpose Forces
This report addresses questions concerning the U.S. Department of Defense's ability to measure and track the language, regional expertise, and culture training and capabilities of general purpose forces.
Oct 17, 2012
Report
Year of the Air Force Family: 2009 Survey of Active-Duty Spouses
Air Force families confront issues related to children, finances, employment, and the effects of moves and deployments but, by and large, remain satisfied with Air Force life.
Mar 3, 2011
Journal Article
The Association Between Perceptions of Social Support and Maternal Mental Health: A Cumulative Perspective
Mothers who perceive that their child's father is supportive are less likely to have mental health problems 5 years after birth; married mothers report the highest levels of supportiveness.
Feb 1, 2011
Research Brief
Sexual Orientation and U.S. Personnel Policy Revisited
Summarizes results of a RAND Corporation study on sexual orientation and U.S. military policy requested by the Senate Armed Services Committee and the Secretary of Defense in order to weigh repeal of the law known as "Don't Ask, Don't Tell."
Dec 23, 2010
Report
Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Personnel Policy: An Update of RAND's 1993 Study
Shares results of a study on sexual orientation and U.S. military policy, requested by the Senate Armed Services Committee and the Secretary of Defense in order to weigh the repeal of the law known as ''Don't Ask, Don't Tell.''
Nov 18, 2010
Draft
Economic Trajectories in Non-Traditional Families with Children
Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, examines associations between family structure and economic trajectories during the first five years after a child's birth, paying special attention to non-traditional families.
Oct 22, 2009
Draft
Longitudinal Perceptions of Supportiveness from Biological Fathers and Maternal Mental Health Problems
Focuses on trajectories of mothers' perceived supportiveness from a biological child’s father and mental health problems five years after the birth.
Sep 29, 2009
Journal Article
Marital Trajectories and Mortality Among US Adults
This study demonstrates that traditional measures oversimplify the relation between marital status and mortality and that sex differences are related to a nexus of marital experiences and associated health risks.
Sep 1, 2009
Journal Article
Family Structure and Fathers' Well-Being: Trajectories of Mental Health and Self-Rated Health
The association between marital status and health among men has been well documented, but few studies track health trajectories following family structure transitions among unmarried fathers.
2009
Journal Article
Is It There When You Need It?
Little is known about the effect of incongruity between perception of, or belief in, the availability of support and actual receipt of support during a time of need.
2009
Journal Article
Stability and Change in Family Structure and Maternal Health Trajectories
This article examines trajectories of maternal mental and physical health using data from the Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study.
2008
Journal Article
Evidence of Parallel Pathways: Gender Similarity in the Impact of Social Support on Adolescent Depression and Delinquency
Examines possible parallel pathways between social support (from parents, peers and schools) and depression in females and delinquency in males.
Mar 1, 2007
Journal Article
Disaggregating the Effects of Marital Trajectories on Health
Recent studies linking marital status and health increasingly focus on marital trajectories to examine the relationship from a life course perspective.
2007
Journal Article
Measuring Trends in Child Well-Being: An Evidence-Based Approach
This paper first reviews the goals of the founding documents of the social indicators and quality-of-life movements of the 1960s and 1970s.
2007
Journal Article
Parental Depression and Anxiety and Early Childhood Behavior Problems Across Family Types
Using the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, we examine the association between parental major depressive and generalized anxiety disorders and child behavior problems across family types: married, cohabiting, involved nonresident father, and noninvolved nonresident father.
2007